The Global Village

The Global Village The global village is characterized by widespread use of advanced information and communication technologies .American physiologist, Manuel Castells has termed it ‘network society’ whereby we run our lives using â€Å"computers, network technologies [] telecommunication [tools] †¦Ã¢â‚¬ (152).This has greatly changed our social structures (151).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Global Village specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the global village, government influence and control has weakened in economic, cultural, political and social dimensions unlike in the past. This has been attributed to novel information and communication technologies ( Castells 155). The powers of most government have been decentralized to local and regional levels â€Å"in an effort to regain legitimacy visvis, their citizen† (Castells 155). This shift in power base is claimed to have been brought about by  "mobile and liquid† capital that has been made possible by advanced information and communication technologies (Sassen, n.pag). It is claimed nations are ‘giving up’ their sovereignty in preference to ‘shared’ sovereignty, mainly through international bodies (EU,NATO ,UN Organizations etc), with other states that results in a collective and stronger influence over other nations (Castells 155). Cities: With increased globalization, some cities are increasingly taking a significant role in running of world affairs than national governments. Saskia Sassen, a professor of Urban Planning at Columbia believes that major cities of the world have the potential to create â€Å"economic geography†. She further states that cities are critical due to the fact that they are the hearts of the telecommunication infrastructure, the driving force of globalization and will continue to serve as â€Å"centers for coordination, control and servicing of global capi tal†. Globalization has also brought about great changes in structures of cities and urban centers in areas such as workforce, settlement, size and design (Hall 144). The effects of globalization are much visible in cities. This has made the issue of the future of these cities to come under close scrutiny. Global economy: The economy of the global village is a large network of small economies in which financial markets are major player (Castells 155). This economy is dynamic, rides on information technologies and is â€Å"heavily dependent on knowledge and information† (154).The global economy is a said to be a network of â€Å"firms, segments of firms, segments of governments, segments of public sector and non-governmental organizations† (Castells 154). This type of economy is also characterized by â€Å"flexible work arrangement† (Castells 155.)Advertising Looking for essay on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Culture: Global cities are multicultural, owing to among other factors, deregulation and privatization of economies that has attracted foreign workers and traders setting in a wave of immigration all over the world (Sassen, n.pag). Corporate culture is emerging to be dominant over other cultures and identities. Previously localized cultures in western countries are fast spreading (Sassen, n.pag). Major global cities share similar cultures. The global village is increasingly facing challenges in terms of unequal development especially widening income disparity, unemployment ,collapse of small businesses as a result of multinationals ‘international monopoly’ ,shift of attention from manufacturing to financial services among others (Sassen, n.pag).Their causes ,however, remain debatable. Conclusion: With emerging superior information technologies every day, change is inevitable. Such changes may sustain the global villages as we currently kn ow it but it may be in a very different scale and proportion. More research is needed on this topic. Castells, Manuel. â€Å"The Contours of Network Society†. Foresight 2.2. ( 2000). Camford Publishing. Web. Hall, Peter. â€Å"The End of The City?†City7:2(2003).Carfax Publishing. Web. Sassen, Saskia. â€Å"Global City: Strategic Site/New Frontier.† Global Tension Conference. 2001 Web.

The Secret Universe of Bret Easton Ellis Novels

The Secret Universe of Bret Easton Ellis Novels The term â€Å"shared universe† is usually found in speculative stories, like the epic connections Stephen King has been quietly building by linking all of his novels and many of his shorter works together, or the way H.P. Lovecraft’s Cthulhu Mythos continues to be the setting for new stories by various authors. Shared universes are exciting because they add a dimension of epicness that can’t be achieved in a single story and open up opportunities for the author to play around with their own creation by cross-referencing events and characters outside a single narrative.   It’s much rarer to find that sort of meta-textual cross-referencing in non-speculative literature, though. Complicating matters is the fact that the most successful shared universes are built slowly, often without the author’s conscious plan. There’s little doubt, for example, that Stephen King had no idea he was creating a shared universe for the first two or three decades of his career. This led to some fairly incredible retcons in later books as he tried to make everything fit. But this slow revelation is also one of the chief pleasures of a literary canon - that moment in novel three when you start to see the connections is electric. You suddenly realize the author has been putting clues and puzzle pieces in front of you all along. Bret Easton Ellis Novels One of the most unexpected and complex shared literary universes can be found in a very unlikely place: the works of author Bret Easton Ellis. He is a divisive writer. For some people, his name is associated only with his most notorious novel American Psycho and the film adaptation it inspired. Christian Bale played the title role in the film. When American Psycho was published in 1991, the critical reaction was mixed. To put it lightly, the distasteful violence combined with the litany of name-checked designer labels led some to pronounce the novel grotesque. Chances are if you’ve read only one Ellis novel, it’s American Psycho. You may be unaware of the incredibly complex and detailed shared universe Ellis has spun over the course of seven books and 30 years. Camden College The seven books that comprise the Ellisverse are: Less Than ZeroThe Rules of AttractionAmerican PsychoThe InformersGlamoramaLunar ParkImperial Bedrooms These six novels and one short story collection can be considered in some ways as one huge story, sharing many settings, characters, and a general sense that life is a banal nightmare populated by demons who prey on each other. If you read Ellis’ books in order, the realization that everything is connected creeps up on you because Ellis often refers to characters in oblique ways without using their names. The eye of the Ellisverse is fictional Camden College, based on Bennington College, which Ellis attended. Many of the characters in Ellis’ books went to Camden, a college that seems to specialize in drug abuse, sexual shenanigans, and emotional breakdowns rather than any sort of useful major. The Camden connection is often the key to figuring out who characters are referencing when using nicknames like â€Å"the guy from L.A.† or â€Å"Rest in Peace.† The Batemans The other key to the Ellisverse is the Batemans, Patrick and Sean. Patrick, of course, is the probably delusional, possibly murderous serial killer from American Psycho, and Sean is his younger brother. Patrick makes his first appearance in The Rules of Attraction, Ellis’ second novel, which is also Sean’s first reference. While Patrick is depicted in that novel as a pretty distasteful person, there’s no indication that he is (or imagines himself to be) a violent serial killer. What isn’t in any doubt is his mutual hatred for his brother Sean. Patrick then appears, or is referred to, in Glamorama and Lunar Park, becoming increasingly ghost-like and seemingly imaginary. Sean is the main character of Rules of Attraction and also appears in American Psycho, The Informers, and Glamorama. Sean isn’t as violently disturbed as his older brother (whom he hates right back) but he’s also not exactly a nice guy. He lives with a healthy dose of self-loat hing, and attempts suicide several times. Both Bateman boys attend Camden College. Connections in the First Five Books Each novel in the Ellisverse connects to every other one. In Less Than Zero, Ellis’ first novel, we’re introduced to Clay, who has come home from Camden College to Los Angeles. Also featured in the book are his girlfriend Blair, childhood friend Julian, and drug dealer acquaintance Rip. Clay is in The Rules of Attraction, Ellis’ second novel, narrating a chapter anonymously as â€Å"the guy from L.A.† Several verbal tics make him easy to identify. Rip, the drug dealer, is also referred to in The Rules of Attraction in a note placed on Clay’s door saying â€Å"Rest in Peace† called. Rip is Clay’s drug dealer. In The Rules of Attraction, Sean and Patrick Bateman both make appearances. Sean is in love with a girl named Lauren and spends time with a bisexual man named Paul who once dated Lauren and is now obsessed with Sean. According to Paul, he and Sean have a passionate affair, but Sean never once mentions having sex with Paul. Lauren is heartbroken over her ex-boyfriend Victor. American Psycho is dominated by Patrick Bateman, of course, who is either engaged in an epic spree of horrifying violence or suffering a complete mental breakdown, depending on your interpretation of the events. His brother Sean appears, as do Victor and Paul. We also meet Tim, a ​co-worker of Patrick’s, and Donald Kimball, the police detective investigating Patrick’s â€Å"crimes.† The Informers is a series of connected short stories. Sean Bateman returns, as do Tim, Julian, and Blair, and a few other minor characters from the prior three novels. In Glamorama, Patrick Bateman shows up for about three lines, with â€Å"weird stains† on the lapel of his suit in what might be a hint that he really is a psycho killer. The main character is Victor from The Rules of Attraction, and several other characters appear, including Lauren and Sean Bateman. So far, so good. Ellis clearly imagines a world in which all of these terrible people exist. Its a world where time passes and people graduate from school, embark on careers, join terrorist groups, and deal with strange vampires (seriously, read The Informers). With the next two books in the Ellisverse, things get really strange. Lunar Park and Imperial Bedrooms Before we go further, let’s jump back to American Psycho and Glamorama, and a minor character who appears in both: Allison Poole. She actually appears as a character in Jay McInerney’s novel Story of My Life, two years before American Psycho. Allison Poole is based on the real-life Rielle Hunter (who you might recall as the woman who brought down John Edwards’ political career). Patrick Bateman murders (?) Poole in American Psycho, linking Ellis’ fictional universe to McInerney’s in what might be the most audacious bit of shared universing in literary history. Poole then shows up again in Glamorama, perfectly alive, giving credence to the theory that Patrick Bateman doesn’t actually kill anyone and is just, you know, crazy. Ellis’ next book was Lunar Park, and this is where the Ellisverse either goes completely nuts or edges into genius, depending on who you ask. Taking a cue from Stephen King, the man character of Lunar Park is Bret Easton Ellis - or at least, a fictional version of himself. The book is styled as a memoir, and the early chapters describing Ellis’ rise to fame and the first five books are reasonably accurate and realistic. Then the character of Ellis meets an actress and gets married and the story takes a sharp turn into the fictional. What makes this fascinating is that characters from Ellis’ novels turn up in Lunar Park as supposedly real people - including Patrick Bateman and the detective who investigates him in American Psycho, Donald Kimball, and possibly Clay (as there is a character named Clayton who resembles Clay in many ways). Jay McInerney also turns up as a character, making this a delirious land-grab when it comes to shared universes, as Ellis now mo re or less claims most of reality as part of his fictional universe. Even more strange, the possibility that some of these people only exist in the fictional Ellis’ fevered imagination is given a lot of traction. So who’s actually there? It might not be possible to know for sure. And then Ellis gets subtler and yet crazier with Imperial Bedrooms. This book is billed as a sequel to Less Than Zero, and features the returning cast of that novel: Clay, Blair, Julian, and Rip, et al. However, Ellis strongly implies in Imperial Bedrooms that the Clay telling the story isn’t the same person as the Clay who narrated Less Than Zero. The implication is that the original Clay was a fictional version of the real Clay. It’s kind of head-spinning and again demonstrates how Ellis is basically erasing the distinction between a fictional universe and the one we all actually live in. Combined with the question of who actually exists in-universe, and the uncertainty in some of the books as to what actually occurs as opposed to what’s imagined, the Ellisverse starts to become extremely trippy and hallucinatory - on purpose. What Ellis is doing is kind of spectacular. Essentially, the events of his novels and stories are presented as real, or as real as anything in the â€Å"real† world. If Stephen King has his hands full linking all of his fictional works together into a shared universe, Ellis is trying to link everything to his fictional universe of sociopaths, drug addicts, and haunted celebrities. It just might be the most ambitious literary experiment ever undertaken. Sources Birch, Helen. Book Review / American psycho-drama: The informers - Bret Easton Ellis: Picador, pounds 9.99. Independent, October 30, 1994. Elder, Richard. Flopsy, Mopsy, Paul, Sean and Lauren: The Rules of Attraction by Bret Easton Ellis. Los Angeles Times, September 13, 1987. Jordison, Sam. Guardian book club: Bret Easton Elliss American Psycho. The Guardian, July 14, 2010. Kakutani, Michiko. Books of the Times; The Young and Ugly. The New York Times, June 8, 1985. Mendelsohn, Daniel. Lesser Than Zero. The New York Times, January 24, 1999. Scott, A. O. Lunar Park: Hero and Heroin. The New York Times, August 14, 2005. Wynn, Gary. Rielle Hunter on Her Relationship With John Edwards Today, Their Life With Their Daughter Quinn. Suzan Clarke, ABC News, July 22, 2016.

IMPERFECT COMPETITION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IMPERFECT COMPETITION - Essay Example Generally, an imperfect competition market can be described as a market setting where the products sold are highly differentiated. In essence, in order to survive in an imperfect market, a firm has to develop unique survival techniques to avoid suffering losses and losing customers loyalty. Apparently, the fast food industry has become quite competitive in the modern times (Schlosser, 2012). In response to the increased competition, firms operating in fast foods industry have come up with distinguished survival strategies to enhance continuity in business. Some of the survival techniques that have been adopted by firms in the fast food industry include product differentiation, brand building and diversity in product promotion. In this regard, it can be observed that the tropical Smoothie Cafà © operates in an imperfect competition market. The price of products offered in an imperfect competition has insignificant influence on demand. Basically, customers in an imperfective competition market are more sensitive on product brand than price. Tropical Smoothie Cafà © has established unique marketing strategies that are rarely known by its competitors. Some of the major competitors of the firm include McDonalds, Starbucks and Burger King. Since the firm operates in an imperfect competition market, the most appropriate means of achieving market power is through establishment of a strong brand name (Manning, 2013). In essence, a strong brand name aids in winning customers loyalty and maintaining them for long. Actually, the firm should emphasis on brand imaging through advertisements and product promotion. In addition, the company should consider offering discounts to its customers to promote sales as well as customer loyalty. The government efforts to regulate business operation can either result in positive or negative outcome to a business concern. The issues of patent

Impressions of Visiting Vatican Museum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Impressions of Visiting Vatican Museum - Essay Example Before going into the particular sensations that my senses felt, it is necessary to begin to describe the experience with relation to the mood that I had upon arriving at the Vatican museum. The mood itself was a mixture of feelings that helped to add to the overall experience and the level to which I can recall it. Firstly, I was exhausted from my travels. Secondly, I was fatigued from standing in line under the hot Italian sun for over an hour. Thirdly, I was thrilled to realize the fact that finally, I was going to be able to realize my dream. And lastly, upon entering the museum itself, I was in pure amazement. What greeted my senses was something that is difficult to retell while keeping the experience as powerful as it was to me. Upon entering the museum, I remember the distinct smells that I encountered. It was an interesting medley that recalled the smell of an air conditioner that had just been turned on for the first time of the season mixed with the powdery smell that ston e buildings often have. What was noticeably remarkable was the fact that the museum did not smell like a museum. Instead, it smelled more sterile. This had the combined effect of somewhat distancing the exhibits from the reach of the visitor. Had the location smelled more like a museum, it is likely that I would have in some way met at least a few of my prior expectations regarding the exhibits housed within. One factor that detracted from the overall experience was the sheer number of people that were in the Vatican museum at the same time that I took my tour. Although I expected that such a tourist attraction would be crowded, I had no way of preparing myself for the number of people that I encountered. Unfortunately, at times, the crush of the crowd did take away from the overall experience as I felt that at certain times I was being herded through the museum without having the necessary time to take in the setting and/or the artwork that greeted me.  

Competition in the Hearing Aid Market

Competition in the Hearing Aid Market Managerial Economics The number of Americans who have hearing difficulties is too many and is still expected to rise as time goes on. This is a challenge that most people undergoing the same ordeal are expected to face under all the circumstances that aid may be available if not totally to cure hearing loss. Hearing aid is a device that can lessen the burden of auditory impairment but it can only do so much. There are still implications that the use of such can be rather viewed as a supplement only and not a corrective tool. This view alone stands actually as a deficient selling point, as people who already have the difficulty will not always depend on these aids and most probably diverge themselves from buying the product. Hence, this situation definitely hurts the sale capacity of the hearing aid industry. Lowering the Price Naturally, as the demand may not be as considerably successful, the prices of hearing aids remain static as against its normally opined high pricing. The idea of lowering the price is a positive idea but not totally a remarkable one. To take for consideration, marketing plays a pivotal role. Product innovation is still under watch as the product continues to address misconceptions about its use and its price. It can be assumed that people who need such may have to be considered based on their actual individual needs. Lowering the price is not only and always the best solution at whatever product is being marketed. Apart from the actual study conducted, it must be analyzed there upon that actual users must be first educated of the many facets of its use and the impact that it may have if chosen as a summative solution to their auditory problems. It has already been mentioned that the implication of social stigma is above the issue of purchase and poor market reception. In as much as g oing through the usual and most careful market analysis, the firms should maintain a higher standard of psycho-social research to come up with a market campaign that is devoted to curing the disease of social stigma for those who use the product if not to give false hopes of entirely curing the malady of their situation. There are market theories available to stand up as resolution before the poor market reception of hearing aids among its target users. However, there should be a critical analysis between price indices and the actual consideration of buyer’s behavior apart from all the equations and variables given as a cardinal rule. The sensitivity to the issues whether they are psychological, social, or economical – must be placed under a more profound handling of the situation. Firms must take a firm hand on the derivation of serious market analysis before any insinuations that price variability is a stand alone solution to the predicament they are experiencing at the time being. Conclusion A regular consumer still considers product innovations such as unique features and warranted efficiency and necessity. Therefore, elasticity in the demand is considerable in effect that demand answers upon these mentioned industry quantifiable. It can be summarized that since economic recession is still in the midst of all considerations, lowering prices is definitely attractive but in foremost opinion product assurance of quality and effectiveness remains to be the most potent market solution in any given situation. 2. Evaluate different possible strategies that companies could implement to gain a sound position among their competitors in this hearing aids market. Use relevant theoretical concepts discussed in chapters The industry of hearing aids is said to be inelastic for most identifiable factor that it does not have too many options and features. But in the advent of market competition, market shares continue to reward the much needed product options – meaning, there are indeed sensible market campaigns that need to be launched to rise above the competition. To understand this point of view, it is already introduced and implied earlier that price variability is a matter of fact the most convenient solution to be competitive in any given market. On the other hand, the real competition begins when a firm understands thoroughly the purchasing behavior of target consumers. It is to be understood that price indices are not only the deciding factors to be considered if firms desire to be at front of the market line. There are still aspects, which include market segmentation and full market analysis, which can only be attained through accurate SWOT analysis. Market Strategies Strategies can be indicated based on the given practices that identify with the rapport involving standard value and capacity which in turn have the maximum probability to improve its market reception and therefore increase its takings. It is also recommended that firm’s standard industry applications can evaluate the magnitude and outlay needed to capitalize on their income prospective, as specified by the price inelasticity of requirement in the market.  While studying the basic product mix in the market of hearing aids, it is also most helpful to introduce new features and innovations in order to entice users and buyers to purchase with loyalty and assurance. This idea will definitely maximize the growth potential and leadership in the market. Gaining a sound and comfortable position is no easy task as it takes a lot of hard work and patience. In realizing this endeavor, it should be analyzed thereon the sensitivity of the target consumers of the implications and sustaina bility of the product upon consumption. Therefore, a creative and definitive market research is important to establish a rapport among consumers and the improvement of the product itself. As stated above, lowering the prices is just one of the solutions but it cannot withstand the whole competition given all the variables of market and the social behavior of the target consumers. Recommendation Like any market competition, SWOT analysis is much reassuring. To depend on more focused research is actually being guided by the tried and tested steps and factors that will handle all the given situations if the market remains stiff and uncontrollable. Perhaps, one example that can be listed is the principle of managerial economics, which employs a wide variety of economic concepts, tools, and techniques in the decision-making process. These concepts are incorporated to be congruent in the following: the theory of the firm, which describes how businesses make a variety of decisions; the theory of consumer behavior, which describes decision making by consumers; and the theory of market structure and pricing, which describes the structure and characteristics of different market forms under which business firms operate. It can be learned that profit maximization also naturally follows when competition gets in to the right mode of market potentiality. 3. What  economic conditions  are relevant in managerial decision-making and how they are related with the typical types of risk faced by a firm? Briefs Economic conditions Basically, managerial economic is about decision-making. It is what managers decide on the matters that make the atmosphere critical for the success of firms. In this light, it is important to stress that economic conditions truly affect the disadvantage that most firms may encounter as they carry on with the principles of economics and business. Definitely in this bracket are issues regarding market structure, conditions of supply and demand, technology, government regulations, international dimensions, future conditions, and macroeconomic factors. On the other hand, profit maximization is adherent to the idea that it can be liable to different concerns about restrictions encountered by the firm such as supply insufficiency, machinery, contractual clauses and liabilities, and laws and government policies. In their attempt to maximize the present value of profits, business managers must consider not only the short-term and long-term implications of decisions made within the firm, but also the many facets of external limits that their firms may experience on their way to achieve its organizational goals. Scarcity issues concern essential inputs (including skilled labor), key raw materials, energy, specialized machinery and equipment, warehouse space, and other resources. Managers naturally experience situations that may limit their ability to sustain balance in the plant capacity, which is worsened by the lack of enough resources that can make a difference in innovation, expansion and market intensification. Contractual obligations also restrict managerial decisions. Labor contracts, for example, may constrain managers flexibility in worker scheduling and work assignment. Finally, laws and regulations have to be observed. The legal restrictions can constrain decisions regarding both production and marketing activities. Examples of laws and regulations that limit managerial flexibility are: the minimum wage, health and safety standards, fuel efficiency requirements, antipollution regulations, and fair pricing and marketing practices. When it was first argued that perfect competition is the idealized version of the market structure that provides a foundation for understanding how markets toil in a capitalist-based economy, it is also understood primarily that conditions are desired to be reached and accomplished. This is in order to consider that market structure is aggressive: product mix and versatility in the market, well-developed and realized consumers and trader’s condition, and a veritable flow of economic mode of production and its all aspects therein. For example, it is required that the product uniqueness must not at full deny their identical nature with other lines as consumers will become oblivious of brand concerns if everything else seems to be the same from one product to another – this is also true with the same price competitions. When a good number of trade participants prevail, this follows through a significant effect on the revenue as the idea that the population of buyers or sel lers cannot make such a significant effect and therefore will not hurt the price control in any given condition. Finally, resources and materials have already become a staple in most competitive business as agricultural products do. This in conclusion, closes the arguments about having a perfect economic condition regardless of any situation. 6. Analyze the effects of the  law of diminishing returns  to a modern-day business. Why this law is considered a short-run phenomenon? Use appropriate examples Briefs The law of diminishing returns is definitely a short-term success, if not totally a phenomenon. It is a matter of theories between labor and capital and how things go at hand with the aspects of demand and supply. It is real and understandable that when a variable resource (labor) is added a fixed resource (capital) will dramatically augment manufacture quantity for a short time. Understandably, at a given time expected the rate of increase will fluctuate and is expected to turn more abysmal.  This is to explain that diminishing returns impinge on both the manufacture of labor and cost of production. As an example, duplication of labor and overproduction only descend to more unfavorable result as mode of production goes in the direction of surplus value. When Malthus postulated that land becomes a variable input when population becomes erratic and unstable, hence, the Law of Diminishing Returns explains further that when a fixed input like land and machineries, is joint in assembly with a changeable input, using a given technology, is expected to amplify the magnitude of the variable input, and therefore will eventually lower the efficiency of the variable contribution. One good example that can be given is the problem of overproduction in the industry of cars and other automobiles. The capitalist ideals about putting more production output each time to arrest the higher market demands come to a lull when the economic condition deepens and starts to affect the consumer behavior. In this event, it could be noted upon that the conversion of inputs into outputs is only realized based on the technology available in use. As a result, inadequate amount of inputs will produce only narrow number of productivity. Another example that can be stated herein is the labor-to-produce inputs as against the number of days and materials exhausted. Supposed that there are numbers of labor force working in a firm and produce a result given, additional input will just approximate a divisive response as against the total produce. Diminishing returns is exact in thought that it plays an important component in the proficient distribution of capitals. This is by significant turn the real concern of firms and that it ultimately desires to bestow more resources to the use in which they are more prolific. Although, as production outlays more resources to an exacting use, it can be observed that diminishing returns presents itself in which it becomes less productive. This is actually a disappointing outcome but in reality it reveals important aspects of arresting difficulties of resourceful provision of capitals. In the time of economic slowdown, it is important to establish the practical facts that diminishing returns are not what the macroeconomic future of any country needs as of the moment. This in fact argues strongly that excesses in times of recession and unscrupulous economic postulations are definitely unhealthy. However, given enough market analysis and putting more confidence to product and technological innovation, all doubts about this particular economic principle will in turn come out advantageous for the full recovery of the economic force. As strongly as it is exact with its intention, allocation of resources must be critically scrutinized in regular runs so as not to receive more losses than the expected outcomes. It is very much possible that the firms as a guiding thought and principle must not bank too much on economic principles that have no material and realistic basis.

Russian Literature

Russian literature: History Overview Russian literature has long been a cultural focus of the entire world. It's not surprising that the formation of Russia's first literary traditions goes back to the first century. The adoption of Christianity boosted the development of literacy, philosophy and theological literature. The earliest literary works were not written in the Russian language but in Old Church Slavonic which was developed in the 9th century by Greek missionaries Cyril and Methodius. Old Church Slavonic became the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church, prompting literary activity in Russia.In 988 Vladimir I, Grand Duke of Kyiv, converted to Christianity and made it Russia's official religion. Eventually, religious ties between Russia, the Byzantine Empire, Ancient Rome and Greece strengthened and began to share common traits. As literacy rapidly developed, so did Russian literature. Historical chronicles, sacred scriptures, biblical texts, sermons, biographies of sain ts and other religious writings and poems were translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic which remained the literary language of Russia until the 17th century.At that time, books served mainly as a means to foster religious awareness. In the long run, Christianity marked the character of the Russian literature. Church literature laid the foundation for the ideas of Russian unity and Russian national identity. First works of Russian literature Byzantine Greek writings influenced the first texts created during the Kyiv period. The most significant sermon, â€Å"Slovo O Zakone I Blagodati† (1050; â€Å"Sermon on Law and Grace†), is a detailed oration written by the head of the Orthodox Church in Russia at that time, Metropolitan Illarion.It is believed to be the first original work of Russian literature. The chronicle â€Å"Povest' Vremennykh Let† (1113; â€Å"The Tale of Bygone Years,† also known as â€Å"The Russian Primary Chronicle†), attribu ted to the monk Nestor, explores the history of the East Slavic peoples, namely Russians, Belarussians, and Ukrainians up to the year 1110. However, the most prominent work of the period is probably â€Å"Slovo O Polku Igoreve† (1185; â€Å"The Tale of Igor's Campaign†). It focuses on a Prince Igor? s failed raid against an army of Asian nomads and is written in lyrical poetic language.The creation of religious scripts went hand in hand with the creation of folk poetry; songs, epics and fairy tales described authentic Russian life and culture. In the late 11th and early 12th century, â€Å"Teaching† by Prince Vladimir Monomakh and â€Å"Wanderings of Daniel† featured a fusion of religious scripts with folk literature. In 1240 the Tatars invaded Kyiv, bringing an early end to this period in culture. For the next 200 years the Tatars occupied most of Russia. While Europe was enjoying the Renaissance, Russian literature was at a standstill.A series of upheav als and riots throughout the 16th and 17th centuries brought political and secular influences to literature. â€Å"Messages of Ivan the Terrible† and the autobiography of Arch Priest Avvakum were the first literary works written in spoken Russian. These works mixed the church and bookish languages with folk speech. One of the most important and notable literary works of the 16th century was â€Å"Domostroi† (â€Å"House-Orderer†). It set the rules for moral behaviour and gave instructions for running a household. In the 16th century folkloric poetry was on the rise as was the popular genre of the secular story of manners.In the 17th century Russian culture was greatly influenced by Western European values. Tsar Peter the Great? s fascination with European culture was looming large and brought the first printed books to Russia, almost all of which were religious in content. A number of Russian poets started composing verses imitating Western authors. In fiction, the influence of Western adventure tales such as â€Å"Don Quixote† by Miguel de Cervantes, is obvious in â€Å"The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn† (â€Å"Povest' o Savve Grudtsyne†) and â€Å"The Tale of Frol Skobeev† (â€Å"Povest' o Frole Skobeeve†).In 1678, the first plays written by a Russian author, Symeon Polotsky, appeared. Step by step, modern Russian literature started to emerge as more and more writers began to develop their own unconventional styles. By the 18th century written Russian finally came into wide use, replacing Old Church Slavonic. Peter the Great and Catherine the Great were keen to promote literature in Russia. Perhaps the most important figure of Russian intellectual life in the 18th century was Mikhail Lomonosov who rose from peasant origins to become a prominent scientist and writer. One of the greatest poets of the time was Gavrila Derzhavin.Russian author Denis Fonvizin dominated the drama. His plays â€Å"Brigadir† (w ritten 1768-1769; published 1790; â€Å"The Brigadier†) and â€Å"Nedorosl? (1782; â€Å"The Minor†) mocked the manners and morals of the upper classes. One of the most interesting non-fiction works of the period was â€Å"Puteshestvie iz Peterburga v Moskvu† (1790; â€Å"Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow†) by Aleksandr Radishchev. It earned its author a ten-year exile to Siberia. Nikolay Karamzin established a Russian prose style in his travel writings with his famous â€Å"Istoriia gosudarstva rossiiskogo† (1818-1824; â€Å"History of the Russian State†).Golden Age of Poetry The 19th century was probably the most fruitful period in the history of Russian literature. Alexander Pushkin Alexander Pushkin 6 June 1799 – 10 February 1837 Mikhail Lermontov Mikhail Lermontov 15 October 1814 – 27 July 1841 Nikolai Gogol Nikolai Gogol 31 March 1809 – 4 March 1852 Ivan Turgenev Ivan Turgenev 9 November 1818 – 3 Septem ber 1883 Lyev Tolstoy Lyev Tolstoy 9 September 1828 – 20 November 1910 Anton Chekhov Anton Chekhov 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904 The first few decades of the 19th century came to be known as the Golden Age of Poetry.Without a doubt, Aleksandr Pushkin's renowned novel in verse â€Å"Evgeny Onegin† (1823-1831) cemented his name in history. Before the 19th century, drama received very little attention from Russian writers. It continued until two pillars of Russian drama Aleksandr Griboedov (â€Å"Gore ot Uma† 1833; â€Å"The Woes of Wit†) and Aleksandr Ostrovsky (â€Å"Groza,† 1860; â€Å"The Thunderstorm†) stepped into the spotlight. But by the end of the century, several timeless plays were written by Anton Chekhov, for example â€Å"Chaika† (1896; The Seagull).The author of the most famous short story in Russian, â€Å"Shinel† (1842; â€Å"The Overcoat†), Nikolay Gogol, is considered to be the original master of Russian prose of the 19th century. His comic, grotesquely humorous collection of short stories â€Å"Vechera na khutore bliz Dikanki† (1831-1832; â€Å"Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka†) are peppered with the local colour and ambience of Ukraine. Fyodr Dostoyevsky's novels examined political and social issues as well as philosophical and moral problems of Russian society. His â€Å"Crime and Punishment† (1866) is considered to be one of the best novels of all time.Leo Tolstoy, like his contemporary Dostoyevsky, was not just a brilliant novelist but a political thinker and philosopher as well. His novel â€Å"Voina i Mir† (1865-1869; â€Å"War and Peace†) is a family and a historical novel in one and is said to be one of the greatest literary works in the history of world literature. Short fiction and poetry gradually replaced the novel and by the end of the 19th century were the dominant genres of Russian literature. Silver Age Alexander Blok Alexan der Blok 28 November 1880 – 7 August 1921 One of the most gifted lyrical poets produced by Russia after Alexander Pushkin.Impressionism and symbolism replaced social realism. A new breed of Russian poets was inspired by Western European cultures, while Russian culture was gaining in popularity in Europe. Russian poet and novelist Valery Bryusov introduced symbolism to Russian audiences. One of the most sophisticated poets of the time was Aleksandr Blok. His greatest work, â€Å"Dvenadtsat† (1918; â€Å"The Twelve,† 1920), described the mood of Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) in the winter of 1918 in the wake of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution.Some of the greatest poets of the 20th century who opposed the Bolshevik Revolution and Soviet rule were Anna Akhmatova (Requiem, 1964), Marian Tsvetaeva and Osip Mandelstam. The last of these was arrested in the 1930s and died in a labour camp. Socialist realism Among those who supported the 1917 Revolution was a prominent Soviet novelist and playwright, Maksim Gorky (â€Å"Mother,† 1907). He was also a founder of socialist realism. After the Revolution, many writers left Russia for Europe and the West.Perhaps one of the most gifted among them was novelist Vladimir Nabokov who emigrated to the United States in 1940 and began writing in English. Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet regime's enforcement of literary guidelines made many established writers withdraw from literature. Little literature was created at that time. Works by Andrey Platonov and Mikhail Bulgakov disappeared in the 1920s. Although Bulgakov had published several plays and stories, his masterpiece â€Å"Master and Margarita,† completed shortly before his death in 1940, remained unknown until it was published in 1966.After the end of WW2, the guidelines of socialist realism were enforced even more strictly than before, and the period from 1946 until the death of Stalin in 1953 was probably the bleakest in Russian literature of the 20th century. Russian literature in exile However, the decades after Stalin's death saw several thaws. Restrictions over literature were eased. In an effort to cast off Stalin's legacy, Nikita Khrushchev expanded the limits of what could be said in public and written in the press. In the 1960s a number of works that had previously been banned were republished and many writers felt relief.Boris Pasternak finally published his legendary novel â€Å"Doctor Zhivago,† although outside the Soviet Union. At first it was accepted by a Soviet magazine, but then rejected. Eventually it was published in the West in 1957. Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1958, but was forced by the Soviet authorities to decline the award. Khrushchev's campaign against Stalin also allowed the publication of another masterpiece, â€Å"Odin den' Ivana Denisovicha† (â€Å"A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,† 1963) by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.It appeared in the lead ing Soviet literary magazine, causing a sensation. It focused on the realities of life in prison camps to which tens of thousands of people suspected of anti-Soviet views, including Solzhenitsyn himself, were sent. But still, novels by Solzhenitsyn, such as â€Å"Rakovyi Korpus† (â€Å"Cancer Ward,† 1968) and â€Å"V Kruge Pervom† (â€Å"The First Circle,† 1968) could not be published in the Soviet Union. Their publication abroad eventually led to an official campaign against the writer that resulted in his expulsion from the Soviet Union.He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1970. Among other prominent anti-Soviet authors was the poet Joseph Brodsky, who left the Soviet Union in 1972. In 1987 Brodsky too was awarded the Nobel Prize. Like Solzhenitsyn, he moved to the United States. New faces The early 1990s saw the collapse of the Soviet Union and with it the end of 70 years of state control over literature. Official censorship was over and th e government proclaimed freedom of the press. This long-awaited independence had profound effects on Russian literature. Works by writers

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